As we have seen, the period between John Selden and Edmund Burke gave rise to two distinct and conflicting political traditions in England, conservative and liberal. In the next chapter, I will consider the nature and achievements of political conservatism in America, where it was taken up by the Federalist Party of Washington, Jay, Adams, Hamilton, and Morris. But before turning to the remarkable story of America’s nationalist conservatives, it is worth taking stock of what we’ve learned so far about the Anglo-American conservative tradition from studying its emergence in England.
We can summarize the principles of Anglo-American conservatism, as they appeared in the writings and deeds of the architects of this tradition, as follows:
Principle 1. Historical Empiricism. The authority of government derives from constitutional traditions known, through the long historical experience of a given nation, to offer stability, well-being, and freedom. These traditions are refined through trial and error over centuries, with repairs and improvements being introduced where necessary, to maintain the integrity of the inherited national edifice as a whole. Such historical empiricism entails a degree of skepticism regarding the divine right of the rulers, the universal rights of man, and all other abstract, universal systems. Written documents express and consolidate the constitutional tradition of the nation, but they neither capture nor define this political tradition in its entirety.
Principle 2. Nationalism. Human beings form national collectives characterized by bonds of mutual loyalty and unique inherited traditions. Nations will have different constitutional and religious traditions due to the diversity of national experience. The Anglo-American tradition is rooted in the ideal of a free and just national state, whose origin is in the Hebrew Bible. This ideal includes a conception of the nation as arising out of diverse tribes, its unity anchored in a common traditional language, law, and religion.
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Principle 3. Religion. The state upholds and honors God and the Bible, the congregation and the family, and the religious practices common to the nation. These are essential to the national heritage and indispensable for justice and public morals. At the same time, the state offers toleration to religious and social views that do not endanger the integrity and well-being of the nation as a whole.
Principle 4. Limited Executive Power. The executive powers of government are vested in a strong, unitary chief executive (that is, the king or president) by the traditional laws of the nation, which the chief executive neither determines nor adjudicates. The powers of the chief executive are limited by the representatives of the people, whose advice and consent he must obtain respecting the laws, taxation, and other crucial matters. The representatives of the people may remove a chief executive where his behavior manifestly endangers the integrity and well-being of the nation as a whole.
Principle 5. Individual Freedoms. The security of the individual’s life and property is mandated by God as the basis for a peaceful and prosperous society, and it is to be protected against arbitrary actions of the state. The ability of the nation to conduct sound policy depends on freedom of speech and debate. These and other fundamental rights and liberties are guaranteed by law, and may be infringed upon only by due process of law.
These principles can serve as a summary of the Anglo-American conservative tradition that informed the restoration of the English constitution in 1688, as well as the restoration enacted by the American Constitution of 1787. These same principles have continued to underpin subsequent conservative political tradition in Britain, America, and other nations down to our own time.
Consider now how these conservative principles diverge from those of liberalism. The crucial differences between the two traditions can be understood in the following way:
Enlightenment liberalism is a political doctrine based on the assumption that reason is everywhere the same, and accessible, in principle, to all individuals; and that one need only consult reason to arrive at the one form of government that is everywhere the best, for all mankind. It borrows certain principles from the earlier Anglo-American conservative tradition, including those limiting executive power and guaranteeing individual freedoms (Principles 4 and 5 above). But liberalism regards these principles as stand-alone entities, detachable from the broader conservative tradition out of which they arose. Liberals thus tend to have few, if any, qualms about discarding the national and religious foundations of traditional Anglo-American government (Principles 2 and 3) as unnecessary, if not simply contrary to universal reason.
In their effort to identify a form of government mandated by universal reason, liberals have thus confused certain historical-empirical principles of Anglo-American conservatism, painstakingly developed and inculcated over centuries (Principle 1), for universal truths that are accessible to all human beings, regardless of historical or cultural circumstances.
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As John Selden put it, they have been “taken in, to the point that the practices adopted by nations, based solely on custom… come to seem like natural and universal laws of mankind.”
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